Puritan and Restoration age.

 Puritan and Restoration Age: A Comprehensive Overview

The Puritan and Restoration Ages mark a significant period in English literature, history, and culture. These

two eras, although following one another, are starkly different in their worldviews, ideologies, and the literary outputs they inspired. This essay will explore the characteristics of each age, paying special attention to religious themes, which played a pivotal role in shaping the sociopolitical environment, intellectual currents, and literary productions.

 The Puritan Age (1620-1660)

Historical Background

The Puritan Age is synonymous with the years of the English Civil War and the rise of Oliver Cromwell. It was a period of political upheaval, moral rigidity, and stringent religious doctrine. The Puritans were a group of Protestant reformers who sought to purify the Church of England of its remaining Catholic practices. Their influence permeated English society, particularly during the Interregnum (1649-1660), when the monarchy was abolished following the execution of Charles I, and England briefly became a republic under Cromwell's rule.

Characteristics of Puritan Literature

1. Religious Focus:

   Puritan literature was heavily influenced by religious beliefs. The primary goal was to glorify God and to communicate moral and ethical lessons based on the Bible. Writers avoided frivolous subjects like love, adventure, and romance, which they saw as distractions from spiritual growth. Instead, literature was used as a vehicle for religious reflection and moral education.

2. Plain Style:

   Puritan writers valued simplicity and clarity. They believed that ornate language was a form of vanity and a distraction from the divine message. Their works were marked by plain and unadorned language, often using biblical references to support their arguments. This style was directly opposed to the elaborate and florid language typical of the earlier Elizabethan and Jacobean periods.

3. Moral Introspection:

   Much of Puritan writing is introspective and confessional, reflecting the individual’s spiritual journey. Writers examined their own lives and thoughts in minute detail, seeking signs of God’s grace or indications of sin. John Bunyan’s *Pilgrim’s Progress* (1678), although published after the Puritan period, embodies the spiritual quest for salvation, portraying life as an arduous journey toward divine grace.

4. Didacticism:

   Literature was seen as a tool for instruction. Puritan writers often wrote in a didactic manner, aiming to teach readers about God’s will, the dangers of sin, and the importance of living a life of piety. Sermons, religious tracts, and theological treatises were popular forms, with the intention of reinforcing the central tenets of Puritanism.

5. Themes of Sin, Guilt, and Redemption:

   Puritan writers grappled with themes of sin, guilt, and the possibility of redemption. Since Puritanism stressed predestination and the constant battle between good and evil, many of the works from this period focus on the tension between human weakness and divine grace. The poetry of John Milton, especially *Paradise Lost* (1667), explores these themes profoundly, with the fall of man symbolizing the eternal struggle between obedience to God and rebellion against divine will.

6. Personal Faith and the Covenant with God:

   Puritan writers focused on the concept of a personal covenant with God. Unlike the formal and hierarchical structures of the Catholic Church, the Puritans emphasized individual spiritual experiences. This relationship with God was often fraught with anxiety, as individuals continuously sought signs of salvation. This theme is prevalent in many Puritan sermons and personal diaries, which reflect the believers' perpetual introspection and search for divine assurance.

Notable Figures of the Puritan Age

- John Milton (1608-1674):One of the towering figures of this age, Milton's *Paradise Lost* reflects many of the core concerns of Puritanism: the fall from grace, the struggle against sin, and the hope for redemption. Although Milton’s later works were written during the Restoration, his early works such as *Areopagitica* (1644) were deeply influenced by the Puritan call for reform and moral vigilance.

- John Bunyan (1628-1688): Another key figure, Bunyan was a nonconformist preacher whose *Pilgrim’s Progress* became one of the most famous allegories in English literature. It encapsulates the Puritan ethos of spiritual self-examination and the arduous path toward salvation.

- Richard Baxter (1615-1691): A leading Puritan theologian and writer, Baxter's works, such as *The Saints' Everlasting Rest* (1650), encapsulated Puritan eschatology and the importance of personal piety in achieving eternal salvation.

 

The Restoration Age (1660-1700)

Historical Background

In 1660, with the return of Charles II to the English throne, the monarchy was restored, and with it came a period of significant social and cultural transformation. The Restoration marked a backlash against the strict moral codes and religious intolerance of the Puritans. It was a time of hedonism, political realignment, and a revived interest in the arts and sciences. This era was characterized by a spirit of exploration, intellectual freedom, and an inclination toward secularism.

Characteristics of Restoration Literature

1.Reaction Against Puritanism:

   Restoration literature is often seen as a direct reaction to the moral and religious rigidity of the Puritan era. It embraced themes of sensuality, wit, and worldly pleasures. Where Puritan writers focused on moral seriousness, Restoration writers often indulged in satire, bawdiness, and irreverence, poking fun at social norms, religious hypocrisy, and the human condition.

2.Secularization of Themes:

   Religion, while still a subject of literature, took a backseat to worldly matters. Political satire, romantic escapades, and the complexities of social relationships dominated the literary scene. Writers like John Dryden, the leading poet and dramatist of the time, used literature as a means to comment on contemporary politics and the nature of human ambition, moving away from the didactic religious purpose that dominated the previous era.

3.Comedy of Manners:

   One of the hallmarks of Restoration drama is the "comedy of manners," a genre that satirizes the behavior and customs of the upper classes. These plays often depicted witty, morally ambiguous characters engaged in sexual intrigue, deception, and social maneuvering. William Wycherley’s *The Country Wife* (1675) and George Etherege’s *The Man of Mode* (1676) are prime examples, offering a sharp contrast to the serious, religious themes of the Puritan era.

4.Restoration Drama and Theater:

   The reopening of theaters, which had been closed under Puritan rule, led to a resurgence of drama. Restoration drama was known for its frankness, wit, and exploration of moral ambiguities. Women were allowed to perform on stage for the first time, marking a significant cultural shift. The plays of the time were characterized by their wit, sexual explicitness, and critique of social norms.

5.Satire and Political Commentary:

   Restoration writers often engaged in political commentary through satire. John Dryden’s *Absalom and Achitophel* (1681) is a famous political allegory that critiques the political machinations of Charles II’s court. This type of writing contrasts with the more direct religious and moral allegories of the Puritan period.

6. Empiricism and Intellectual Curiosity:

   The Restoration period saw the rise of empirical thought and scientific inquiry, influenced by thinkers like John Locke and Sir Isaac Newton. Literature from this period reflected a growing interest in human reason, observation, and skepticism about traditional beliefs. This intellectual movement distanced itself from the religious dogmatism that had dominated the Puritan era, favoring instead a more rational and secular view of the world.

Religious Themes in the Restoration Age:

Although secularism dominated much of the Restoration period, religion still played a role, though in a more nuanced and often critical manner. Writers like Dryden, a Catholic convert, grappled with religious controversies of the time, including the tension between Anglicanism, Puritanism, and Catholicism. Dryden’s *Religio Laici* (1682) reflects the era’s religious complexities, blending satire with serious theological reflection.

Religious hypocrisy became a favorite target of satire. In Restoration literature, the clergy and pious individuals were often depicted as corrupt, hypocritical, or foolish, a significant departure from the reverent tone of Puritan literature.

Notable Figures of the Restoration Age

-John Dryden (1631-1700): Dryden was the dominant literary figure of the Restoration. He wrote poetry, plays, and critical essays, often blending political commentary with literary innovation. His works, including *The Medal* (1682) and *Mac Flecknoe* (1682), epitomize the satirical and secular tendencies of the period.

-Aphra Behn (1640-1689):One of the first professional female writers in England, Behn’s plays and novels, such as *The Rover* (1677) and *Oroonoko* (1688), reflect the era’s fascination with themes of love, power, and morality.

-William Congreve (1670-1729):A key figure in the development of Restoration comedy, Congreve’s plays like *The Way of the World* (1700) are celebrated for their wit, intricate plots, and critique of social customs.

Conclusion: 

The Puritan and Restoration Ages represent two vastly different responses to the political, religious, and social challenges of 17th-century England. The Puritan Age, marked by religious fervor and moral seriousness, gave way to the Restoration